Rebellions frequently stem from profound discontent with the established order. Whether they manifest peacefully, such as Mahatma Gandhi’s resistance in India, or violently, like the American and French Revolutions, their goal is to secure concessions or overthrow the current authority deemed responsible for the grievances.
While many rebellions end in failure or have limited local impact, a select few have successfully toppled empires, altering the trajectory of global history. Below, we explore ten such pivotal revolts.
10. Revolt of Babylon
For nearly three centuries, the Neo-Assyrian Empire exerted firm control over its conquered territories, notable for being the first in history to wield iron weapons. This technological advantage propelled Assyria to become the world’s largest empire and foremost military power of its time.
However, after subduing Babylon in 729 BC, the Assyrians faced recurring uprisings. In 626 BC, under the leadership of Chaldean general Nabopolassar, Babylon seized the opportunity during a brief Assyrian civil war to rebel against their overlords. They successfully besieged and captured Babylon and Nippur, repelling the Assyrian counterattacks. Nabopolassar ascended as King of Babylon following these victories.
Over the next two decades, conflicts persisted. By around 622 BC, as Assyria began to regain its advantage, another rebellion emerged in the western reaches of the empire, enabling Nabopolassar to solidify control over the entire Babylonian realm by 620 BC.
Despite support from Egypt, the Assyrian Empire struggled to contain mounting threats from northern nomadic raids, eastern Iranian incursions, and Babylonian advances from the south. In 609 BC, these combined pressures led to the downfall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, paving the way for the rise of the Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire.
9. Roman Revolution
Although Rome stood as a pivotal political force in ancient Europe, its early history remains veiled in obscurity. Recorded accounts of Rome only emerged in the 3rd century BC, after its conquest of the Italian Peninsula and involvement in a significant war with Carthage. Prior to this, narratives were largely comprised of anecdotes and fragmentary details. Over time, historical interpretations, embellishments, and selective omissions were introduced to fill gaps and present a more favorable narrative, including during Rome’s transition from monarchy to republic.
Legend holds that Rome had seven kings before the establishment of the Republic, beginning with Romulus, who founded the city around 753 BC. The first six kings were purportedly benevolent, but the seventh, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (known as Tarquin), was infamous for seizing power violently after murdering his predecessor and numerous senators. His epithet “Superbus” (the Proud) reflects his despotic reign.
The catalyst for the Roman Republic’s creation in 509 BC was a political coup led by Lucius Junius Brutus and other nobles, spurred by the rape of a noblewoman by Tarquin’s son, Sextus. They expelled the Tarquin family and instituted a republic, appointing two consuls elected annually in place of a lifelong king. This narrative was later invoked centuries later to justify the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC by Marcus Junius Brutus, a descendant of Lucius.
Modern scholars, however, suggest that the establishment of the Roman Republic may have been precipitated by Etruscan defeat of the Romans in battle and subsequent retreat before they could install themselves as rulers. Rather than appointing a new king, Romans opted for a republican form of governance.
8. Athenian Revolution
In the early 6th century BC, Solon, counted among Greece’s Seven Wise Men, enacted sweeping reforms that laid the groundwork for Athenian democracy. He established the Boule, a council of 400 representatives from Athens’ main tribes, and the Ecclesia, an assembly open to all male citizens regardless of social status. These reforms brought stability to the city-state, enabling Athens to govern itself without a singular ruler, functioning in a quasi-anarchic political system.
However, this nascent democracy faced challenges and the looming threat of tyranny. Pisistratus, an aristocrat, seized power through a populist coup and ruled as Tyrant until his death in 527 BC, succeeded by his son Hippias. Though Athens initially prospered under Hippias, his rule grew increasingly oppressive following his brother’s assassination. This instability provided an opportunity for Sparta, led by King Cleomenes I, to invade Athens in 510 BC. Cleomenes ousted Hippias and installed Isagoras, an Athenian noble and ally, sparking further unrest.
Isagoras attempted to dissolve the Boule and exile his opponents, but his actions alienated the Athenian populace, particularly the middle and lower classes eager to restore democracy. The Athenians revolted, besieging Isagoras and Cleomenes on the Acropolis for two days. On the third day, Cleomenes and Isagoras were permitted to leave, yet 300 of their supporters were slain.
Following these events, Cleisthenes, a staunch opponent of Isagoras, returned from exile and led the democratic movement. He implemented comprehensive reforms that expanded the Boule, introduced sortition to randomly select officials, and instituted ostracism to exile individuals perceived as threats to democracy for ten years. These measures cemented Athens’ transition to a more inclusive and participatory democratic system.
7. Liu Bang’s Insurrection
According to British historian Arnold Toynbee, “The two most visionary and influential political figures in human history are Caesar, founder of the Roman Empire, and Liu Bang, founder of the Han Empire.”
Liu Bang, a rare example in Chinese history of a peasant rising to become a powerful emperor, was born and raised in a small fishing village on the eastern coast of China, in what is now Jiangsu province. Little is documented about his early life, but by his late twenties, he served as a local law enforcement officer, rising to prominence as a popular political figure in his forties.
Following the death of Emperor Shihuangdi of the Qin Dynasty in 210 BC, which plunged the empire into chaos, Liu Bang joined a rebellion against the Qin rule. The rebellion was nominally led by Xiang Yu, an aristocrat and brilliant military strategist, although lacking in political acumen. In contrast, Liu Bang, known for his rough demeanor (including once urinating on a court scholar’s formal hat to express his disdain for scholarly pursuits), garnered immense popular support. Together with fellow rebel leaders, they successfully defeated Qin forces, eliminated the new emperor, and restored the pre-Qin feudal system, with Liu Bang assuming leadership over the kingdom of Han.
However, this alliance soon fractured, leading to a civil war among former allies. Liu Bang emerged triumphant in 202 BC after defeating Xiang Yu decisively at the Battle of Gaixia, where Xiang Yu chose suicide over capture. With no significant rivals left, Liu Bang declared himself Emperor under the title Gaozu, establishing the Han dynasty.
6. Maccabean Revolt
Initially under the sway of the Ptolemaic dynasty based in Egypt and largely autonomous, Judaea came under the influence of the Seleucid Empire in 198 BC. Antiochus the Great of the Seleucids launched a broad campaign of Hellenization across his empire, which met resistance among many non-Greek populations. This policy continued under Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who intensified repression against the Jews in 168 BC.
The reasons for Antiochus IV’s particular focus on the Jewish religion remain unclear, but his decrees outlawed all Jewish practices and placed Jerusalem directly under Seleucid control. This sparked a revolt led by Judah Maccabee in 167 BC. Known as the Maccabees, the rebels initially conducted small-scale raids on towns and targeted Greek officials. The revolt rapidly grew, culminating in the capture of Jerusalem in 164 BC. The Jewish festival of Hanukkah commemorates this event, celebrating the rededication of the Second Temple altar.
In an attempt at reconciliation, the Seleucids lifted the ban on Judaism, but radical factions within the Maccabees persisted in seeking complete independence. This prompted a substantial Seleucid military response. At the Battle of Elasa in 160 BC, Judah Maccabee was killed, and the Maccabees suffered a significant defeat, leading to the restoration of direct Seleucid control over the region.
Despite this setback, the resistance continued under Judah’s brother Jonathan for nearly two decades. Internal strife within the Seleucid Empire eventually enabled the Jewish forces, led by Simon Thassi (another brother of Judah and Jonathan), to recapture Jerusalem in 141 BC. The Jews formed an alliance with the Romans, which facilitated their independence under the Hasmonean dynasty.
5. Heraclian Revolt
Emperor Phocas’s eight-year rule from 602 to 610 AD proved calamitous, pushing the Byzantine Empire to the brink of collapse. A centurion of humble origins, Phocas initially gained prominence as a spokesperson for disgruntled soldiers at Emperor Maurice’s court. When a mutiny erupted in Constantinople, Phocas seized the opportunity, overthrowing Maurice and ordering the execution of Maurice and his five sons on the same day in 602 AD. Subsequently, Phocas declared himself Emperor and later had Maurice’s wife and daughters killed as well.
Regarded as a usurper, Phocas implemented a ruthless regime marked by severe repression, purging of political adversaries, and installing his family members in crucial military and administrative roles. Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire faced dire challenges on multiple fronts. The Avars and Slavs conducted frequent raids deep into the Balkans, while Byzantine Italy struggled against continual Lombard incursions. In the East, the Sasanian Empire launched a devastating invasion in 603 AD, swiftly capturing Mesopotamia, Syria, and much of Asia Minor, advancing towards the Bosphorus Strait by 607 AD.
Witnessing the empire’s perilous state, motivated by a desire to avenge Emperor Maurice and likely driven by personal ambition, the Heraclii decided to rebel. Heraclius the Elder, ruling over the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa, initiated the rebellion by cutting off grain supplies to Constantinople. Supported by his son, Heraclius the Younger, they assembled a formidable army and navy, garnering additional backing from Egypt and other provinces in the central Mediterranean. The Heraclii forces marched towards Constantinople, swiftly overthrowing Phocas and inaugurating the Heraclian dynasty.
4. Abbasid Revolution
The Abbasid Revolution marked the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate and the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, a dynasty that endured until 1517 AD. The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 AD) was an Arab empire that governed predominantly non-Arab populations. Throughout its reign, non-Arabs, regardless of their conversion to Islam, were relegated to second-class status.
The Abbasid uprising drew support from a wide array of backgrounds and societal levels. While primarily composed of non-Arab Muslims, the rebellion also garnered backing from Sunni and Shia Muslims, non-Muslims, and even segments of Arab Muslims who opposed Umayyad centralized power and its impact on traditional nomadic lifestyles. Regarded as one of the most organized revolts of its time, the movement originated in Persia in 747 AD and quickly spread westward into present-day Iraq, rallying strong local support.
The turning point came at the Battle of Zab in mid-January 750, where the Abbasid forces, despite being outnumbered, achieved a decisive victory across the Great Zab River in northeastern Iraq. By April of that year, they had seized the Umayyad capital of Damascus. Caliph Marwan II and his family were hunted down and killed in Egypt, while Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah ascended as the new Abbasid Caliph.
In 762 AD, the capital was relocated to Baghdad, a modest village at the time, signaling a significant shift eastward that enhanced Persian influence within the new Caliphate. The Abbasids also established equal social and spiritual rights for non-Arab Muslims alongside Arabs, catalyzing the flourishing cultural and scientific advancements of the Islamic Golden Age.
3. The Great Slav Rising
The Great Slav Uprising of 983 AD erupted when several Slavic tribes in present-day northeastern Germany rebelled against the Holy Roman Empire. These tribes, including the Polabian Slavs, Lutici, and Wends, had been subjugated by German kings Henry the Fowler and Otto I, who sought to consolidate their rule by Christianizing the Slavs through the establishment of bishoprics in their territories. Despite earlier defeats, such as at the Battle of Raxa in 955, the Slavs persistently reverted to their pagan beliefs whenever possible.
The death of Otto II in Rome in 983 AD and the subsequent succession of his infant son Otto III created a power vacuum within the Holy Roman Empire. Exploiting this turmoil, the Slavs launched a rebellion, attacking churches, monasteries, and even besieging Hamburg. Although a hastily assembled German army managed to halt the Slavic advance east of the Elbe River, the situation remained tense.
Over the next two centuries, intermittent German campaigns, sometimes with Polish assistance, attempted to subdue the Slavs without lasting success. It wasn’t until the mid-12th century during the Wendish Crusade and subsequent decades that German forces finally conquered the lands east of the Elbe River and enforced Christianization upon the Slavic peoples.
2. Uprising of Ivan and Peter Asen
The Uprising of Ivan and Peter Asen in the late 12th century marked a Bulgarian and Vlach rebellion against the Byzantine Empire, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The revolt was sparked by Emperor Isaac II Angelus’s imposition of increased taxes to fund his wedding festivities. Ivan and Peter Asen, two Valachian brothers, initially sought a peaceful resolution by proposing to enlist in the Byzantine army and receive a small estate in the Balkan Mountains to offset the tax burden. However, their requests were rebuffed and met with insult, prompting the brothers to threaten rebellion.
Returning home, Ivan and Peter mobilized their supporters and launched their uprising on October 26, 1185. They attacked Byzantine settlements and plundered the former Bulgarian capital of Preslav. In early 1186, Emperor Isaac mounted a counter-offensive, pushing the rebels north of the Danube River. There, the Asen brothers forged alliances with the north Danubian Vlachs and Cumans, bolstering their forces.
Employing guerrilla tactics, the rebels inflicted several ambushes on the Byzantine forces, who were also preoccupied with other internal rebellions. This allowed the Vlachs and Bulgars to consolidate control over extensive territories north of the Balkan Mountains. By 1187, Emperor Isaac II was compelled to negotiate a truce, recognizing Ivan and Peter Asen’s authority over the conquered lands and acknowledging the restoration of the Bulgarian Empire.
1. Portuguese Restoration War
Following the death of the childless Portuguese King Sebastian during the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578, King Philip III of Spain seized control and established the Iberian Union, which endured from 1580 to 1640. Until around 1620, the union was relatively peaceful, coinciding with the rapid expansion of Brazilian and South American trade.
However, the situation deteriorated after 1620 due to heavy taxation and the Dutch occupation of Portuguese territories in northeastern Brazil and West Africa. Spain’s neglect of Portugal’s imperial economy exacerbated these hardships.
On December 1, 1640, the Forty Conspirators took action: they assassinated the Secretary of State, imprisoned Margaret of Savoy (the king’s cousin who governed Portugal), and proclaimed John IV as the new King of Portugal.
Spain, engaged in the Thirty Years’ War, could only attempt to isolate newly independent Portugal militarily and diplomatically. Finally, on February 13, 1668, Spain recognized the House of Braganza as Portugal’s ruling dynasty.
